- Not man-made
- Natives in many countries used obsidian which is a usually black volcanic
glass that will hold an extremely sharp edge and thus is good for knives,
scrapers, and arrow and spear points while being brittle and fragile. Chunks
of obsidian were trade objects and tribes of hunters returned to good sites to
make points, leaving piles of scrap behind. Glass is also made
when lightning strikes certain kinds of sand, but it is a curiosity since it
is a rough tube and normally can not be melted for reuse because it is nearly
pure quartz with a high melting point. 2007-12-02
- Really, really old stuff (2500 BC - 200 BC)
- The period when people are doing a lot of guessing, like
how glass was discovered, much glass was made, and who
did what. Unlike some other discoveries made in several
or many places, it is possible that actually making glass
from chemicals (as opposed to melting chunks of broken
glass and using it) may have been discovered in one place
(Mesopotamia) and retained as a tightly held secret for
centuries, which is contended by one author.
In this time frame we have glass used like gem stones [2500
BC Mesopotamia]* and glass vessels made by pulling
threads around a clay core or by rolling clay in broken
glass, melting it to form a surface and then threading
glass for decoration over the melt. [core-forming, 1550
BC, Mesopotamia] For a discussion of glass pottery where glass
material from metal smelting was pushed around by pottery people, see
here. [2007-12-02] Probably nothing blown. [Egyptian core-formed
c.1380 BC] [Fused mosaic slumped over form, 15th C.BC
Meso.] [Vessel glass gone, 1200-900BC Meso. hiatus 1070-600
BC Egypt] [8th C.BC Mosiac production leads to vessel
production, lost wax casting, Phoenician]
* [bracketed dates are from GLVAM]
2500 BC |
Cast glass to work like gemstone beads |
Mesopotamia |
GLVAM |
1550 BC |
Core formed vessels |
Mesopotamia |
GLVAM |
15th c |
"Massive cutting & lathe turning from blocks" |
Egypt |
GLSMI |
14th c |
Mosaic fused and slumped vessels |
Mesopotamia |
GLVAM |
1380 BC |
Core formed vessels made locally |
Egypt |
|
|
|
|
|
700-799 BC |
Mosaic, vessels, lost wax casting |
Phoenicia |
GLVAM |
|
|
|
|
100 BC |
Roman Empire & blown glass develop |
Roman Emp. |
GLSMI |
- Really old stuff (27 BC - 400 AD)
- This is the time when Rome was using a lot of glass
vessels, [pillar molded by slumping, Roman] which
combined with the way the stuff holds up means there is a
lot of old Roman period glass still around. Somewhere in
here [Augustus, 27BC-14AD, blowing] it is felt that
someone discovered glassblowing, possibly by using a
fired clay tube in a wooden tube holder [although clay
tubes have not been found, so probably metal.] [blown the
norm by 50 AD] This is also when pressed glass objects
like medallions were made and some really incredible
pieces (cage cups) where much glass was removed from a
thick walled vessel, leaving a net or cage of glass
around a thinner inner cup. [Glassmakers mentioned in
Lyons (Gaul), Athens (Greece) Mauretania (Morocco),
Dalmatia, and Cologne (Rhineland) c.100AD] [40AD mold
blown glass] [70 AD intentionally decolorized glass]
http://www.romanglassmakers.co.uk/index.htm Roman era glass melting
reconstruction.
c.10 BC |
Blown glass |
Roman - Augustus emperor |
|
50 AD |
Blown the norm |
Roman |
|
100 AD |
Glass makers wide spread |
|
|
c 400 AD |
Roman Empire collapses |
|
|
c 450 AD |
Glass houses in Kent |
Angles & Saxons. |
|
610 AD |
Rise of Islam |
Mecca - Arabs |
|
732 AD |
Moors stopped in S. France |
|
|
9th Cent |
Potash replaces soda in glass - move to woods |
|
|
to 11th Cent |
Rise of Islamic glass on roots in Egypt,
Syria & Iran. |
Molds, cut glass, surface painting |
|
11th Cent |
Glass production in monasteries |
Benedictine, Monte Cassino, IT |
|
800-1400 |
Rise of Christianity, no glass in burial
sites |
|
|
1173-1271 |
Venice regulates glass trade-guild rules
published |
|
|
1291 |
New glasshouses restricted to Murano |
Italy |
GLSMI |
fr. 12th Cent |
Rise of enameled decoration in Islamic |
|
|
to 13th |
Rise of forest glasshouses in northern Europe |
|
|
1450ff |
Cristallo - flint pebbles & imported
purified soda |
Venice (durability lowered, no lime)fs |
|
15th Cent. |
Islamic Glass industries dies out. |
|
|
1527 |
Patent for filigree glass cane |
Serena bros. Venice. |
|
|
|
|
|
- Confused times (400 AD - ?)
- As the Roman Empire shifted and collapsed, glass workers
were confined to
limited areas and escaped to be confined in other areas
by people who really wanted to control their talents.
Glass making developed in Italy and what is now Germany
and Eastern Europe. Toward the end of the period,
movement of specific individuals can be tracked as glass
of particular features is made in particular places. The
image at the right, taken from Didderot's famous
Encyclopedia shows one form of furnace factory. Usually
this form was contained inside another building which
provided shelter for the workers and flue/chimney support
for the fires giving the heat. Where is that for this
picture? Next floor down.
- Fritting the glass
- "The ashes contained more potash than soda and gave a good-quality
glass, though discoloured by metallic impurities.
Attempt to purify the ashes, by boiling with water, filtering off the
insoluble residue and evaporating to reclaim the alkali, were only partially
successful as the important calcium salts were depleted. This resulted
in a less stable glass. At the end of the seventeenth century
Continental glassmakers successfully produced a fine, colourless potash glass
known as 'chalkglass' by adding both calcium compounds and purified ash to the
'batch' - the mixture of ingredients.
However, even purified ash was contaminated with sodium and potassium
chlorides. In making both soda and potash glass they were removed by
preheating the batch for up to 48 hours at 700°C in a special furnace called
the 'calcar' to form 'frit'. Frit is a crude granular form of glass.
The unwanted chlorides could be leached out with water before it was dried
ready for the melting-pot. The development of more efficient furnaces
made it possible to transfer the hot frit straight from the calcar to the
melting-pot: the chlorides rose to the surface of the molten glass and fused
to form a scum, known as 'gall' or 'sandiver', that could be ladled off."
Antiques, p.62 2004-02-28
- Move away from Wood
- Up until about the time of the American Revolutionary
War, the primary fuel for glassblowing was wood or
charcoal made from wood. Owning a glassblowing factory
also meant owning the owning a fair amount of woodland
and hiring woodcutters. In England, this process got
banned partly because the Navy needed large supplies of
wood for shipbuilding and tall straight trees for masts (guess
what country was good for these?) In other countries,
they simply ran out of wood. Burning coal for glass
melting requires a change of pot shape and putting lids
on pots to keep the ash and cinders out, especially if
clear crystal is desired. (Britain also did nasty things
to its glass industry with taxes on windows and tariffs
on glass.)
- From 1750 to 1900
- This is the period of great glass making of certain
kinds, the hand production of window
glass and bottles and the gradual take over of
mechanical methods, first for bottles, then for window
glass. After the Civil War to the turn of the century was
perhaps the greatest period of hand production of glass,
yet by the end of World War I, all hand blowers of glass
bottles and virtually all window glass blowers were
unemployed because of machine development.
|
|
- Making Glass in America
|
Although glass is legendary as the first industry in
England's American colonies, at Jamestown, in fact very
little if any was produced there and certainly none was
commercially returned to England. Glass making seems to
have worked hard at being as far behind the frontier as
possible.
In brief summary, glass factories developed on the far
east coast, around Boston and down toward Cape Cod before and
after the Revolutionary War. Although other places
developed, largely around large holdings of wood, in
Vermont and New York, the next big hiccup of development
was in the Philadelphia area and into New Jersey which
had good sands and lots of wood. Good sources of
information are NEGG and GGNG. These factories burned wood and a
requirement of running one was ownership of sufficient
wooded land to supply the factory for years. One ad cited
calls for people to cut 700 cords of wood. [each being 128 cu.ft., one
web site giving 15.6 million Btu per cord for Eastern White Pine and 29.1
MBtu/cord for White Oak] Factories had
wood drying kilns as part of their setup. Tall chimneys
provided a strong draft for the fires.
With the development of natural gas as a heat source,
people from declining factories in Boston leaped to
develop operations the descendents of which are still running operations in northern Ohio (Libby-Owens-Ford)
and western Pennsylvania (Pittsburgh Plate Glass PPG).
The bottle
making and sheet glass manufacturing industries were
developed there as Michael Owens (Owens Bottling)
developed solutions. With these solutions, the manually
blown bottle and sheet glass workers vanished, replaced
by workers handling machines and not glass. Today there
are glass factories across the country wherever some
combination of power availability, supplies, and need
merge for economic advantage.
Notes on British glass development |
|
|
|
|
|
- FACTORY GLASS
- This seems a good point to discuss how glass has been
melted/made down through the years. Here I am speculating
a lot because I haven't seen good descriptions in several
cases. If I cite a source, then someone looked into it.
At some point in history, glass stopped being melted by
single artisans in small pots and started being melted in
hundreds of pounds quantities with lots of people working
together. We have pictures of various operations down
through the years, many of them from DIDEROT and his
Encyclopedia of mechanical arts of his time.
Using a source that cites a fair number of details, NEGG, early New England glass (1755, p.44ff)
was building a furnace that held 6 pots in the furnace,
four men working these pots, which will make 300 rolls of
glass, each yielding 450 square feet of glass (a pot
elsewhere described as making 80-90 bottles, vs 50 window
cylinders here.) Unfortunately, the only clue to weight
of glass per pot is citing 36.5 pounds of kelp per pot
and I am not yet ready to work back through kelp to
potash to glass. However, if the glass is 1/8"
thick, 75 square feet (50 rolls) yields 117 pounds (at 0.087
lb/cu.in) and if there is 100% waste on production for
the tops and bottoms, the pots are about 230 pounds or 1.5
cu.ft. inside which might be 20D x 20"high.
Elsewhere, a letter from Ben Franklin states a glass
furnace is 12 foot long, 8 wide and 6 high the fire being
laid on the floor and the pots "3 or 4 on a side"
stand on a clay bench. If these are outside dimensions
with walls 6" thick, 4 pots would be about 7 feet
with no spacing between, leaving 4 feet to spread the
pots or to provide arch support for the roof and leave an
opening to remove the pot.
- UTILITY GLASS
- The making of ordinary glass for ordinary uses, rather
than art glass for rich patrons or ceremonial uses seems
to have really risen in the mid 18th century and
progressed to the beginning of the 20th when mechanical
methods for blowing glass settled in, removing the human
lungs from the equation. The changes since then have
mostly been in window glass production rather than
bottles or glasses.
During the 19th century, massive amounts of glass were
hand formed with increasing amounts of hardware to assist.
- Blown Molded
- Blown glass can be shaped entirely by hand, but for
production, it is often best to have a head start on the
shape by blowing into a mold, which may provide the
entire shape of the final product (say a log cabin shaped
bottle for a brand of bitters) or only provide the
initial working shape, say a textured base globe base
below a cylinder neck, which is then worked by the gaffer
to be a decanter, or a pitcher or a lamp. Molds are
usually iron, but can be brass, wood or aluminum (today)
- Pressed glass
- If a mold is made for the outside of the glass and a
shape is made to form the inside or top of the glass and
these two are mounted so a lever will press the latter
into the former, then pressed glass is made when a gob of
glass is put in the mold and pressed. After the pressed
glass is taken from the mold, several things can happen:
it can be annealed as pressed, it can have handles and/or
a foot attached, it can be further formed, as say a lip
on a pitcher, it can be used as a foot or other hot bit
for a blown piece.
What makes pressed glass important in history is that it
allowed mass production, particularly of bowls that
looked like cut glass, but without the manual labor of
cutting.
- Mechanical glass
- Untouched by human hands, glass made entirely by
mechanical processes is tricky to set up and a lot of
money was spent on trials and failures before Michael
Owens, among others, made things work. The critical
problem is that very hot glass must be exactly measured (usually
by holding the temperature correctly and letting it flow
through a hole until cut off) and then manipulated for
shaping and blowing without cooling it too much or
damaging the iron molds needed to stand up to production.
Bottles, glasses, and sheets are made mechanically. The
glass is usually a formula with a narrow soft range (short
glass) so that once it hits the mold it gets hard quickly
and can be released from the mold. Typically the gob is
dropped into a shape and a plunger both preforms it and
applies air to blow the glass down into a mold. 1226 BROAD SHEET was
first made in Sussex, but of poor quality, and fairly opaque. Manufacture
slowly decreased and ceased by the early 16th Century.
|
|
1226 |
BROAD SHEET was first made
in Sussex, but of poor quality, and fairly opaque. Manufacture slowly
decreased and ceased by the early 16th Century. |
England |
LCGCH |
1330 |
French glassmakers produced CROWN GLASS for the first time at Rouen.
Some French Crown and Broad Sheet was imported into the UK. |
France |
LCGCH |
1615 |
Coal used for melting glass, patent issued, wood banned |
England |
GLVAM |
1620 |
BLOWN PLATE was produced in London by grinding and polishing Broad
Sheet, |
England |
LCGCH |
1688 |
Casting large sheets of plate glass for mirrors |
France |
GLVAM |
1678 |
CROWN
GLASS was first produced in London. A spun out disk is cut into
small panes or lights. Because of its finer quality, this
predominated until the mid nineteenth century. |
|
LCGCH |
1730 |
Lead crystal - potash & lead oxide, no lime, no soda |
England |
GLVAM |
1773 |
English POLISHED PLATE by the French process was produced at Ravenshead |
England |
LCGCH |
1780-1810 |
English cut crystal peak |
England |
GLVAM |
1810- |
Three piece mold blown forms for tableware |
|
GLVAM |
|
Pressed Glass |
|
GLVAM |
1834 |
Robert Lucas Chance introduced IMPROVED CYLINDER SHEET, using a
German process, men blowing a long cylinder vertically which was cut
open in lehr |
England |
LCGCH |
1780's |
Improvements in CYLINDER SHEET with mechanical pulling of cylinders |
|
MF |
1870- |
Peak for American Cut Crystal |
USA |
GLVAM |
|
Michael Owen bottle blowing mechanization |
|
GLVAM |
1900 |
Collapse of the handblown glass industry with intro of machines. |
|
MF |
1903 |
MACHINE DRAWN CYLINDER Glass invented
in the USA, was manufactured in the UK by Pilkingtons from 1910 to 1933. |
|
LCGCH |
1913 |
Belgium produced the first
machine FLAT DRAWN SHEET glass where the
sheet was pulled and turned over a roller into the lehr. First drawn in
the UK in 1919 in Kent |
|
LCGCH |
1959 |
FLOAT
GLASS was launched on the UK Market, invented by Sir Alistair
Pilkington, cooling on molten tin |
England |
LCGCH |
LCGCH -
The London Crown
Glass Company - The History of Glass
2500BC |
2000 |
1500 |
1000 |
500 |
400 |
300 |
200 |
100 BC |
100 AD |
200 |
300 |
400 |
500 |
600 |
700 |
800 |
900 |
1000 |
2500 BC Cast glass to work like
gemstone beads Mesopotamia
GLVAM |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1550 BC Core formed vessels Mesopotamia
GLVAM |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
15th c "Massive cutting & lathe turning from blocks" Egypt
GLSMI
14th c Mosaic fused and slumped vessels
Mesopotamia
GLVAM
1380 BC Core formed vessels made locally
Egypt |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
9th Cent
Potash replaces soda in glass - move to woods |
11th Cent Rise
of Islamic glass on roots in
Egypt,
Syria & Iran.
Molds, cut glass, surface painting |
|
|
|
700-799 BC
Mosaic, vessels, lost wax casting
Phoenicia
GLVAM |
|
100 BC Roman Empire
& blown glass develop Roman Emp.
GLSMI
c.10 BC Blown glass begins
Roman - Augustus emperor |
|
|
610 AD Rise of Islam
Mecca - Arabs |
11th Cent
Glass production in monasteries
Benedictine, Monte Cassino, IT |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
100 AD
Glass makers wide spread |
400 AD
Roman Empire collapses |
732 AD
Moors stopped in S.France |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
50 AD Blown the norm
Roman |
c 450 AD
Glass houses in Kent
Angles & Saxons. |
|
800-1400
Rise of Christianity, no glass in burial sites |
1100 |
1200 |
1300 |
1400 |
1500 |
1550 |
1600 |
1650 |
1700 |
|
|
|
|
|
1527 Patent for filigree glass cane
Serena bros. Venice. |
1688 Coal used for melting glass, patent
issued, wood banned
England GLVAM |
|
|
|
|
|
|
1615 Casting large sheets of plate glass for mirrors
France GLVAM |
|
|
to 13th Rise of forest glasshouses in northern
Europe |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1730 Lead crystal - potash & lead oxide, no lime, no soda
England GLVAM |
|
1173-1271 Venice regulates glass trade-guild rules
published
fr. 12th Cent
Rise of enameled decoration in Islamic |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1291 New glasshouses restricted to Murano Italy GLSMI |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1450ff
Cristallo - flint pebbles & imported purified soda
Venice (durability lowered, no lime)fs |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
15th Cent. Islamic Glass industries dies out. |
|
|
|
|
1740 |
1760 |
1780 |
1800 |
1820 |
1840 |
1860 |
1880 |
1900 |
|
1740 Wistar NJ ------------ 1780 |
1781 Glassboro NJ
-------------------------------------40 other factories in NJ-------------------------------------------1884 |
Continued under other owners |
|
63 PN Stiegel 74 |
85 Amelung 95 |
1797 Pittsburgh, Bakewell
------ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
1783 Pitkin Glass, New Haven
CT 1830 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
-------1812 Cains &
S.Boston Gl. ------------------------------- 1865
-------------------------------- 1888 |
|
|
|
|
|
-------------1818 New England
Glass Co. MA ------------------------------------------------------- 1888 > |
Libbey Glass Co. OH |
|
|
|
|
------ 1825 Boston &
Sandwich Glass -------------------------------1888 |
|
|
|
|
|
OH 1815 Zanesville,
Mantua, Kent 1851 |
|
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WV 1813 Wellsburg, Wheeling
------------------------------------------------------------------- 1892 |
And beyond |
Fostoria |
- Victorian Art Glass movement
- Around the turn of the 19th century (1880-1910), there
was an enormous reaction to the busyness of Victorian cut
glass, with a number of famous people turning out glass
for artistic purposes. These included the firms of
Tiffany and Steuben (iridized color) and the people Gallé
and Lalique who pressed, carved and molded glass for
decorative tableware, sculpture and lighting.
- Modern Art Glass movement
- By the early 1960's very little handblown glass was being
produced outside of factories which were melting glass by
the ton. The ceramics trained son of a Corning glass
worker, Harvey Littleton, and a glass technologist,
Dominique Labino worked to make a glass melting furnace
that could melt a hundred pounds or two with a formula
that was well behaved and produced clear lead free glass.
Littleton's training center, the individual rebelliousness
of the times, and a new attitude toward glass produced
the movement, starting from a conference at the Toledo
Museum of Art. At one point in the movement, it was
required that show artists sign a statement that the
pieces submitted has been entirely by them, with no help,
thus completely abandoning the team approach to
glassblowing that had gone on for centuries. This was
killed off in part by the arrival of Lino Tagliapietra
who demonstrated outstanding glass working skill while
showing the advantages of the team in making many pieces
and by Dale Chihuly learning in Venice and using the team
to make his big pieces.
|
|
Date (~=approx) |
Person |
Event |
Src |
1920's-30's |
|
Last days of Galle, Tiffany, & Steuben turn of the century art glass |
|
1930's-40's |
|
Bright color mass produced "Carnival"
and depression glass, Clear Steuben crystal
builds |
|
50's |
|
Peak of Steuben crystal, bright color handblown glass
from Ohio River valley factories
Revival of Venice (Venini) glass - bright colors, handkerchief
vase
Scandinavian Glass Graal
Higgins fused glass plates, etc., marketed. |
Soth |
60's |
|
Growth of college programs, usually out of
pottery, from people out of Littleton's program
in Wisconsin - RISD, Kent State, U.Iowa, |
|
1962~ |
Harvey Littleton & Dominick Labino |
Conference at Toledo Art Museum with small (100#)
studio size glass furnace. |
Soth |
1962 |
Andre Billeci |
Alfred University instructor takes weekend demo into summer,
independent study course (63) and undergrad course (66) |
GQ98 p.39 |
1963 |
Harvey Littleton |
U Wis. Art 176 Glassworking grad course |
GQ98 p.37 |
|
Marvin Lipofsky |
UC Berkley program, student Richard Marquis |
GQ98 p.39 |
|
Richard Marquis |
taught at UCLA (closed 1985) |
GQ98 p.39 |
1964 |
Tom McGlauchlin |
Moves from being Littleton tech to found U.Iowa program |
GQ98 p.37 |
1964 |
|
Labino plans and builds a furnace for glassblowing
demonstrations at Columbia University |
SGBC |
1965 |
Norman Schulman |
founded RISD program, assisted by Chihuly |
GQ98 p.39 |
|
Dan Dailey |
studied with Chihuly, founded Mass.College of Art program |
GQ98 p.39 |
1966-67 |
Dominick Labino |
Workshops at his studio under Toledo museum |
GQ98 p.39 |
|
Henry Halem |
Kent State University program |
|
1969 |
Fritz Dreisbach |
Toledo Museum of Art glass gallery & studio opens, workshops |
GQ98 p.37 |
1969 |
|
Chihuly heads Rhode Island School of Design program |
SGBC |
70's |
|
|
|
1970 |
William Bernstein, Dan Dailey, Wayne Filan |
Build glass furnace as Philadelphia College of Art includes
glass in ceramics curriculum |
GQ98 p.37 |
1970 |
|
First Glass Art Society Conference, Toledo |
|
1971 |
Dale Chihuly |
Pilchuck co-founded. Spends time in Venice,
first? American. |
|
1971 |
|
Habatat Gallery opens in Lathrup Village, Michigan |
SGBC |
1972 |
|
First Habatat International Glass
Invitational (30th) |
|
1973 |
Glass Art Magazine |
Lists 70 glass programs, mostly in art departments |
GQ98 p.39 |
1973 |
|
Heller Gallery opens in New York City (formerly called the
Contemporary Glass Group). |
SGBC |
1979 |
|
Lino Tagliapietra, Italian maestro, teaches at Pilchuck |
SGBC |
80's |
|
“Art vs. craft” debate pushes aside technical issues |
SGBC |
1981 |
|
Glass magazines flourish |
SGBC |
1983 |
Therman Statom |
attended Pilchuck & RISD, headed UCLA to close 1985 |
GQ98 p.39 |
|
|
|
|
1983 |
|
The Creative Glass Center of America, a division of Wheaton
Village, Inc |
SGBC |
|
|
|
|
1985 |
|
Glass Weekend begins at Wheaton Village, Millville, New
Jersey.
Craft Emergency Relief Fund (CERF) formed |
SGBC |
|
|
|
|
1987 |
|
Dominick Labino dies (1910–1987). |
SGBC |
|
|
|
|
90's |
|
|
|
1990 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1993 |
|
The Society of Glass Beadmakers (SGB) is formed by a small group
of American beadmakers |
SGBC |
1994 |
|
SOFA (Sculpture Objects and Functional Art) exhibitions begin in
Chicago. later added in New York |
SGBC |
1995 |
|
|
|
1997 |
|
Major museum exhibits |
SGBC |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
2000's |
|
Major glass museum buildings - Tacoma, Toledo |
MF |
GQ98 GLASS Quarterly #98, Spring 2005 Article "8 Days in
Toledo"
SGBC Warmus
Studio Glass Bibliography and Chronology claims to have the best
bibliography on the art glass movement and I can hardly challenge that. Arranged
chronologically with interspersed historical event notes. Also includes
artist reference data for some artists. Last updated in 2003. 2005-08-19
Bibliography - Link
to more books
- NEGG
- New England Glass and Glassmaking, Kenneth M. Wilson,
Thomas Y. Crowell Co., NY 1972, "An Old Sturbridge
Village Book" ISBN 0- 690-58075-4 Link
to reference page
- GGNJ
- The Glass Gaffers of New Jersey and their creations from
1789 to the present, Adeline Pepper, Charles Scribner's
Sons, NY, 1971 , ISBN 684-10459-8 Link
to reference page
|